BIONEXTS EDUCATION

Introduction Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants, algae, and some bacteria convert light energy into chemical energy, typically in the form of glucose, while producing oxygen as a byproduct. This lecture will cover the structure of chloroplasts, the site of photosynthesis, as well as the two main stages of photosynthesis: the light-dependent reactions and the light-independent reactions (Calvin cycle). Structure of Chloroplast The chloroplast is the cellular organelle where photosynthesis takes place. It is a double-membraned organelle with the following key structural components: Outer Membrane : The outermost layer of the chloroplast, which defines its boundary. Inner Membrane : The inner membrane, located beneath the outer membrane, is where the electron transport chain of the light-dependent reactions occurs. Thylakoid Membranes : These are internal membrane structures, organized into stacks called grana (singular: granum). Thylakoid membranes contain chlorophyll an...

  What is  Urea Cycle? The urea cycle, also known as the ornithine cycle, is a critical biochemical pathway responsible for the removal of toxic ammonia (NH3) from the body and the synthesis of urea, a less toxic and water-soluble compound. Ammonia is produced during the breakdown of amino acids, and its accumulation in the body can lead to severe neurological and metabolic disorders. In this lecture, we will explore the urea cycle, its steps, and its significance. Key Concepts in the Urea Cycle Ammonia Detoxification The primary function of the urea cycle is to detoxify ammonia generated during amino acid catabolism. Ammonia is produced when amino groups are removed from amino acids through processes like deamination. Urea Synthesis Urea is synthesized in the liver as a result of the urea cycle. It is a non-toxic compound that is water-soluble and can be excreted from the body through the urine. Steps of the Urea Cycle The urea cycle consists of several enzymatic reactions th...

Introduction Transamination is a fundamental biochemical process that plays a crucial role in amino acid metabolism. It involves the transfer of an amino group (NH2) from one amino acid to a ketoacid, resulting in the formation of a new amino acid and a new ketoacid. Transamination is essential for the synthesis of non-essential amino acids and the interconversion of amino acids in various metabolic pathways. In this lecture, we will delve into the details of transamination. Key Concepts in Transamination Enzyme Catalysis Transamination reactions are catalyzed by a group of enzymes known as aminotransferases or transaminases. The most common transaminase is alanine aminotransferase (ALT or SGPT), which plays a significant role in the transamination of amino acids. Coenzymes The transamination process requires coenzymes, specifically pyridoxal phosphate (PLP), which is the active form of vitamin B6. PLP acts as a covalently bound cofactor to the transaminase enzyme and plays a critical ...

  Deamination and its Types Deamination is a biochemical process that involves the removal of an amino group (NH2) from a molecule, typically an amino acid. This process results in the conversion of the amino acid into a ketoacid, and the released amino group is usually transformed into ammonia (NH3) or a compound that can be safely excreted. Deamination plays a crucial role in amino acid catabolism and nitrogen balance in the body. In this lecture, we will explore deamination and its different types. Types of Deamination 1. Amino Acid Deamination This type of deamination involves the removal of the amino group from an amino acid, resulting in the formation of a ketoacid. The amino group is usually converted into ammonia or ammonium ions, which are less toxic forms that can be excreted from the body. Amino acid deamination can occur through various pathways, and it is essential for the breakdown of amino acids for energy production and other metabolic processes. 2. Nucleotide Deami...

  Nucleotide Metabolism Nucleotide metabolism is a complex and highly regulated biochemical process that involves the synthesis and degradation of nucleotides, the building blocks of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA). Nucleotides play essential roles in cell division, DNA replication, RNA transcription, energy transfer, and various cellular signaling pathways. In this lecture, we will explore the key aspects of nucleotide metabolism. Overview of Nucleotide Metabolism Nucleotide metabolism consists of two main pathways: De Novo Synthesis : This pathway involves the de novo (from scratch) synthesis of nucleotides from simpler precursors. It is the primary route for nucleotide biosynthesis and requires energy and various enzymatic reactions. Salvage Pathway : The salvage pathway recycles nucleotide bases from degraded DNA and RNA. This pathway is energy-efficient compared to de novo synthesis. De Novo Synthesis of Purines Purine Ring Formation Formation of 5-Phosphoribosyl-1-Pyrophosphate (...

  Glycolysis and Its Regulation Glycolysis is a central metabolic pathway that occurs in the cytoplasm of cells and plays a crucial role in the breakdown of glucose to produce energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). This lecture will cover the key steps of glycolysis and the regulatory mechanisms that control this pathway. Glycolysis Overview Glycolysis is a series of chemical reactions that convert one molecule of glucose (a six-carbon sugar) into two molecules of pyruvate (a three-carbon compound). The process involves two main phases: Phase 1: Energy-Investment Phase Glucose Phosphorylation : Glucose is phosphorylated by ATP to form glucose-6-phosphate, catalyzed by hexokinase. Isomerization : Glucose-6-phosphate is converted to fructose-6-phosphate by the enzyme phosphoglucose isomerase. Second Phosphorylation : Fructose-6-phosphate is phosphorylated again using ATP to form fructose-1,6-bisphosphate, catalyzed by phosphofructokinase-1 (PFK-1). Cleavage : Fructose-1,...